The territory of modern France grew from Roman Gallia and Frankish kingdoms, but regional languages and political loyalties remained strong for centuries. Capetian rulers gradually extended royal authority, while towns, nobles and the church retained substantial power. The Hundred Years’ War and later centralisation contributed to monarchy-building, although the state’s borders and institutions continued to change.
The Revolution of 1789 abolished the monarchy, privileges of the estates and feudal obligations, while proclaiming citizenship and popular sovereignty. Revolutionary conflict, empire and restoration followed; administrative reforms, including the prefecture system and civil code, outlasted these regimes. The nineteenth-century republics expanded schooling and electoral politics as France built an overseas empire founded on conquest and colonial rule.
German occupation during the Second World War and the Vichy government brought persecution, collaboration and resistance; French authorities participated in the deportation of Jews. After liberation, the Fourth Republic faced colonial wars and decolonisation, including the Algerian War. The Fifth Republic and European integration reshaped governance, while migration from former colonies and overseas territories has made questions of identity and secularism enduring public issues.