10000 BCE
San and Khoikhoi communities
- San
- Khoikhoi
San groups included diverse hunter-gatherer communities; Khoikhoi kept livestock. Colonial settlement brought land loss, violence and epidemics.
AfricaCapital: Pretoria
South Africa
South Africa's landscapes range from desert and savannah to forests and long coasts. Indigenous communities, colonial settlement, slavery, migration, apartheid and the democratic transition have shaped its diverse society and eleven official languages.
- Languages
- Zulu, Xhosa, Afrikaans, English, Sepedi, Setswana, Sesotho, Tsonga, Swati, Venda, Ndebele
- Religions & worldviews
- Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Judaism, African traditional religions
Historical timeline
3300000 BCE
Early human history
The region contains some of the oldest and richest evidence for human evolution and early settlement.
1000 BCE
Pastoral Khoikhoi communities
Khoikhoi communities kept livestock in southern coastal and inland areas; San communities had varied lifeways.
1000 – 1500
Bantu-speaking communities
Agriculture and herding spread south as communities developed trading and political ties.
1050 – 1300
Mapungubwe
Mapungubwe became a centre of trade and social hierarchy, with links to the Indian Ocean.
1652 – 1795
Dutch Cape Colony
The VOC established a provisioning station at the Cape; colonisation and slavery displaced and transformed local communities.
1838
Great Trek and conflicts
Boer migrations inland expanded colonial control and led to violent conflicts with Indigenous states.
1910
Union of South Africa
British colonies and Boer republics united; Black South Africans were largely excluded from political power.
1948 – 1994
Apartheid formalised
The National Party made apartheid state policy, enforcing segregation and dispossession.
1960
Sharpeville
Police shot demonstrators protesting pass laws; the massacre became a turning point in the anti-apartheid struggle.
1994
First democratic elections
Nelson Mandela became president after the first national elections with universal suffrage.
1996
New constitution
A new constitution enshrined democratic rights, equality and recognition of eleven official languages.
Historical context
Southern Africa has a very long history of human settlement and diverse ways of life. San communities developed hunting, gathering and knowledge practices in varied landscapes; Khoikhoi communities herded livestock and maintained trading relationships. From the first millennium, Bantu-speaking farming and herding communities moved south in several phases. Mapungubwe and other centres reveal regional trade and political hierarchies, but were not direct precursors of a single modern nation-state.
The Dutch East India Company established a provisioning station at the Cape in 1652; colonial expansion brought dispossession, slavery and violence against local communities. British takeover, the Great Trek and the creation of Boer republics rearranged landholding and power. The Union of South Africa was formed in 1910, excluding the black majority from political power. From 1948, apartheid systematically enforced segregation and forced removals, while resistance developed among diverse organisations and communities.
The democratic transition of 1994 ended formal apartheid and brought universal suffrage and a new constitutional order. Truth and reconciliation processes documented human rights violations without removing the material consequences of land dispossession and inequality. Mining, industrialisation and migration changed cities and labour relations throughout the twentieth century. Contemporary society is multilingual and culturally diverse; debates about land, opportunity, memory and economic inequality remain closely tied to colonial and apartheid histories.
Peoples & cultural heritage through the ages
300 – 1652
Early and medieval states
- Sotho-Tswana
- Nguni
- Venda
- Tsonga
- San
Bantu-speaking farming and herding communities formed networks and kingdoms; trade linked the interior and coast.
1652 – 1910
Colonial Cape and interior
- Khoikhoi
- San
- Xhosa
- Zulu
- Afrikaners
- Cape slaves
Dutch and British colonisation, slavery and frontier wars transformed landholding and population composition.
1910 – 1994
Union, apartheid and resistance
- Zulu
- Xhosa
- Sotho
- Tswana
- Afrikaners
- Indian South Africans
Racial laws institutionalised inequality; urban migration, trade unions and anti-apartheid movements shaped a diverse society.
1994
Contemporary South Africa
- Zulu
- Xhosa
- Sotho
- Tswana
- Afrikaners
- Indian and mixed communities
The population includes many recognised communities; migration from other African countries and the legacy of inequality remain significant.
Religion, worldview & philosophy
San and Khoikhoi communities have varied spiritual traditions, narratives and ritual practices; these are not identical and have changed through contact, dispossession and forced conversion. Relationships with ancestors and knowledge tied to particular places are important in different Nguni, Sotho-Tswana and other communities. Missionary Christianity spread during the colonial period, often alongside education and government, but local religious traditions continued and shaped new forms of belief.
Christian churches are now the largest religious tradition, including both historic denominations and independent churches. Islam, Hinduism, Judaism and African traditional religions are also present, reflecting long histories of trade and migration. Secular and non-religious views form part of modern society. Faith is often intertwined with family, community and political history, but the country’s provinces and many communities have diverse practices and beliefs.
Art movements
🎨 San rock paintings and engravingsthousands of years ago–present
Rock paintings and engravings document the visual worlds and place-based histories of San communities. Interpretation requires attention to local context and living knowledge; not every motif can be explained with certainty.
🎨 Ndebele painting and beadwork19th century–present
Ndebele artists developed striking geometric patterns in mural painting, clothing and beadwork. Forms and colours are dynamic and carry meanings that vary by maker, community and occasion.
🎨 Isicathamiya and South African choral singing20th century–present
Isicathamiya grew in urban migrant communities, combining polyphonic singing with carefully coordinated movement. The style draws on local vocal traditions and changed through labour migration, radio, competitions and international performances.
Traditions & customs
UmhlangaFestivallate winter
The reed dance is a ceremonial event in Eswatini and among Zulu communities; forms and meanings vary.
Reed Dance and IncwalaFestival
Royal ceremonies and community celebrations in Zulu and Swazi traditions are linked to seasons and authority.
IsicathamiyaMusic & dance
A singing style with closely choreographed movement, known internationally through South African choirs.
Ndebele wall paintingCraft
Geometric house painting is a living art form, especially among Ndebele communities.
BraaiCustom
Outdoor cooking and communal eating are popular across communities, with regional variations.
Rugby and footballSports & games
Both sports are widely followed; their histories have been shaped by segregation and inclusion.
Cuisine & culinary history
South African cuisine reflects Indigenous crops, colonial settlement, slavery, Indian migration and contemporary urban culture. Regional dishes range from maize and sorghum porridge to Cape Malay stews and coastal fish.
Culinary history
Maize, sorghum and other grains became important staple crops in different communities; porridge is eaten in varied forms with vegetables, meat or sauce. Livestock, seasonal harvests, coastal fishing and local plants provided other foods. Preparation differs by landscape and community. The country’s food history is not one regional cuisine, but a meeting of indigenous knowledge and changing agricultural and trading practices.
Colonisation, slavery and the Cape’s trading history brought European, Asian and African ingredients and techniques together; later, Indian migration and mining towns changed food culture. Cape Malay dishes, Durban curries and braai traditions express different histories and should not be treated as representative of everyone. Modern meals reflect urban migration, income disparities and regional preferences. Festivals and family gatherings make cooking and eating together an important social practice.
- Khoikhoi and San lifeways and local plants
- Nguni and Sotho-Tswana farming
- Dutch, British and Cape Malay colonial histories
- Indian indenture and migration
- Mining and urban migration
BobotieMain course
Spiced minced-meat bake with an egg topping, often served with yellow rice.
Origin: Cape Malay cuisine, colonial Cape
Bunny chowStreet food
Hollowed-out bread filled with curry.
Origin: Durban's Indian community, 20th century
BiltongSnack
Dried and seasoned meat.
Origin: Pastoral preservation technique, later associated with Afrikaner cuisine
Pap with chakalakaMain course
Maize porridge with spicy vegetable relish.
Origin: Regional South African home and workers' cuisine
PotjiekosMain course
Slow-cooked stew in a cast-iron pot.
Origin: Afrikaner and colonial outdoor cooking traditions
KoeksistersDessert
Fried dough soaked in syrup; Cape and Afrikaner versions differ.
Origin: Cape Malay and Afrikaner baking traditions
Wonders & heritage
- Mapungubwec. 1220 – 1290
Historical figures
- Nelson Mandela1918 – 2013
Events
- Vredefort impact2.02 billion years ago · Meteorites & impacts
- Sharpeville massacre21 March 1960 · Politics & state formation
- Release of Nelson Mandela11 February 1990 · Politics & state formation