40000 BCE – 711
Prehistory and antiquity
- prehistoric communities
- Iberians
- Celts
- Romans
- Suebi
- Visigoths
The peninsula was home to diverse peoples; Roman and later Germanic rule mixed with local populations.
EuropeCapital: Madrid
Spain
Spain encompasses the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic and Canary Islands, and two cities in North Africa; its regional languages and identities are diverse. Roman, Islamic, Jewish and Christian legacies, imperial expansion and the transition to democracy after Franco have shaped its history.
- Languages
- Spanish (Castilian, official nationwide), Catalan/Valencian, Galician and Basque (co-official in relevant autonomous areas), Aranese and Asturian (regionally protected), Arabic, Romanian, Berber and various immigrant languages
- Religions & worldviews
- Historically: Roman Catholicism, Islam and Judaism; Jewish and Muslim communities were expelled or forcibly converted in the late fifteenth century, Today: Roman Catholic tradition, alongside Muslim, Protestant, Jewish and non-religious communities
Historical timeline
40000 BCE
Prehistoric art
Cave paintings, including those at Altamira, attest to symbolic art in the Palaeolithic.
218 BCE – 19
Roman Hispania
Rome gradually conquered the Iberian Peninsula; Latin and Roman cities shaped later languages and institutions.
711 – 1492
Al-Andalus and the Christian kingdoms
Islamic dynasties ruled much of the peninsula; Christian kingdoms expanded in successive phases.
1492
Granada and Atlantic expansion
Nasrid rule in Granada ended; Castilian expeditions to the Americas led to colonisation, conquest and profound consequences for Indigenous peoples.
1516 – 1700
Habsburg monarchy
The Spanish monarchy governed an extensive European and overseas empire; wealth and war went hand in hand with colonial exploitation.
1701 – 1714
War of the Spanish Succession
A European dynastic war ended with a Bourbon monarchy and changed balances of power.
1808 – 1814
Peninsular War
The French invasion sparked resistance and a war that weakened the monarchy and the Spanish colonial empire.
1936 – 1939
Spanish Civil War
Nationalist and Republican sides fought a bloody war; the Nationalist victory established Franco's dictatorship.
1939 – 1975
Franco dictatorship
The authoritarian regime suppressed political opposition and regional languages; after Franco's death, a transition to democracy began.
1978
Democratic Constitution
A new constitution established a parliamentary monarchy and recognised autonomous communities.
1986 – 2026
European integration and Spain today
Spain joined the European Communities and deepened its political and economic integration with Europe; the autonomous communities continue to shape the country's internal structure.
Historical context
Before Rome, the Iberian Peninsula contained varied Iberian, Celtic and coastal communities, alongside Phoenician and Greek trading settlements. The Roman conquest, which unfolded over several centuries, brought roads, cities and Latin administration; spoken Latin later developed into languages including Castilian, Catalan and Galician-Portuguese. Visigothic rule followed Rome, while retaining many existing Christian and administrative structures.
From 711, Islamic conquests brought the peninsula into the political world of al-Andalus. Power shifted among emirates, caliphates and smaller kingdoms, while Arabic, Berber, Mozarabic and Hebrew were present in a multilingual society. Science, agriculture and urban culture developed in several centres. Contact among Muslims, Christians and Jews involved trade and the transmission of knowledge, but also warfare, unequal rights and periods of persecution.
The expansion of Christian kingdoms, the capture of Granada in 1492 and dynastic unions helped create a centralised monarchy without erasing regional languages and institutions. Atlantic expansion involved colonial rule, forced labour and the conquest of Indigenous societies in the Americas, while silver and trade networks connected Spain with Europe and Asia. After the Civil War, Franco established a dictatorship; the democratic transition and 1978 Constitution made autonomous communities central to the present state.
Peoples & cultural heritage through the ages
711 – 1492
Al-Andalus and medieval kingdoms
- Arab and Berber communities
- Mozarabs
- Sephardic Jews
- Castilians
- Catalans
- Basques
Muslims, Christians and Jews lived under varied political circumstances; periods of exchange alternated with persecution and conflict.
1492 – 1808
Empire and early modern state
- Castilians
- Catalans
- Basques
- Galicians
- Roma
- migrants from the Americas
Imperial trade connected Spain with the Americas, Africa and Asia; colonisation brought subjugation, disease and demographic disruption for Indigenous peoples.
1808 – 1975
Nation-state and dictatorship
- Castilian-, Catalan-, Basque- and Galician-speaking people
- Roma
- migrants to Latin America
State centralisation and political conflicts affected regional identities; Franco's dictatorship suppressed many expressions of regional languages.
1975
Democratic and contemporary Spain
- regional Spanish communities
- Roma
- Moroccan, Latin American, Romanian and West African communities
Autonomy, European integration and immigration have made Spain culturally diverse; language and regional powers remain public issues.
Religion, worldview & philosophy
Before the Roman period, local religions existed alongside cults spread through Mediterranean trade. Christianity grew under Roman rule and became institutionally dominant in the Visigothic period. During al-Andalus, Muslim, Christian and Jewish communities were present, although their legal positions differed and changed. Medieval Jewish communities contributed to philosophy, medicine and translation, while conversion and coexistence existed alongside coercion, exclusion and violence.
For centuries the Catholic Church shaped education, the calendar, art and political legitimacy, while the Inquisition and the expulsions of Jews in 1492 and Moriscos in the seventeenth century enforced religious homogenisation. The nineteenth and twentieth centuries brought secularising politics and disputes over the Church’s role; under Franco, Catholicism again received a privileged position. Since the democratic Constitution, Spain has been a non-confessional state. Catholics, Muslims, Protestants, Jews and non-religious people are part of a religiously diverse society.
Art movements
🎨 Mudéjar and Andalusi architecture8th–16th centuries
Builders and craftspeople used horseshoe arches, geometric tilework, stucco and wooden ceilings in Islamic, Jewish and Christian settings. Monuments such as the Alhambra and later Mudéjar buildings show both regional variety and the continuation of techniques across political and religious boundaries.
🎨 Spanish Baroque and the Siglo de Oro16th–17th centuries
Painting, sculpture, theatre and literature developed amid court patronage, urban religious commissions and imperial connections. Artists such as Velázquez and Zurbarán used naturalism and light, while writers including Cervantes and Lope de Vega depicted varied social worlds.
🎨 Modernisme and the avant-gardelate 19th–20th centuries
Catalan Modernisme linked architecture and applied arts through organic forms and innovative materials, notably in the work of Antoni Gaudí. Later, Spanish artists such as Picasso, Miró and Dalí contributed to international avant-gardes; their work arose in varied political contexts and was shaped in part by exile.
Traditions & customs
Semana Santa (Holy Week)FestivalWeek before Easter
Religious processions with brotherhoods, especially well known in Andalusian and Castilian cities.
La TomatinaFestivalAugust
A tomato festival in Buñol that grew into an annual event during the twentieth century.
FlamencoMusic & dance
A musical and dance form from Andalusia, shaped by Roma, Andalusian and other cultural influences.
CastellsRitualSpring–autumn
Human towers built by teams in Catalonia, with cooperation and safety at the centre.
PelotaSports & games
A collective term for ball games played regionally, including Basque pelota in several forms.
The Three KingsFestival5–6 January
Parades and family customs around the Three Kings are an important festive occasion in many places.
Cuisine & culinary history
Spanish cuisine varies greatly by region and relies on olive oil, grains, legumes, fish and local produce. Roman, Andalusian and Atlantic contacts brought ingredients together; crops from the Americas transformed the cuisine, including through tomatoes, peppers and potatoes.
Culinary history
Grain, olives, wine, pulses and fish formed the basis of many regional foodways in antiquity; Roman agriculture and irrigation left lasting traces. In al-Andalus, techniques and crops such as rice, citrus, sugar cane and saffron spread, though their use varied by region. After the Atlantic exchange, tomatoes, peppers, potatoes and cacao reached Europe; their adoption in Spanish cooking was gradual and eventually changed stews, sauces and everyday meals.
Spanish cuisine remained regional: rice cultivation in Valencia, coastal fisheries, southern olive oil, and grain and livestock farming inland supported different food customs. Catholic fast days affected demand for fish and meat substitutes; markets and urban inns brought ingredients and recipes together. Tapas, family gatherings and local festivals give food a social role, while modern migration and international trade continue to broaden contemporary cuisines.
- Roman agriculture and olive cultivation
- Andalusian and Maghrebi techniques
- Atlantic fishing
- The Columbian Exchange of tomatoes, peppers and potatoes
- Regional pastoral and market cultures
Paella ValencianaMain course
Rice dish with saffron, chicken, rabbit and regional vegetables; variations exist.
Origin: Valencian rice fields and agriculture, especially from the early modern period.
GazpachoSoup
Cold soup made with tomato, pepper, cucumber, bread, garlic and olive oil.
Origin: Andalusia; tomatoes and peppers were added after the Columbian Exchange.
Spanish omelette (tortilla de patatas)Main course
Omelette with potato and often onion.
Origin: Potatoes came from the Americas; the dish became widespread in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Pulpo a la gallegaMain course
Boiled octopus with olive oil, paprika and potato.
Origin: Galician markets and festive cuisine.
Patatas bravasStreet food
Fried potatoes with a spicy sauce, often served as a tapa.
Origin: Twentieth-century urban tapas culture; exact origin is unclear.
Churros with chocolateDessert
Fried dough, often dipped in thick, hot chocolate.
Origin: Spanish churrerías became popular especially in the nineteenth century; chocolate came from the Americas through colonial trade.
Wonders & heritage
- Alhambrac. 1238 – 1358
- Sagrada Família1882
Historical figures
- Christopher Columbus1451 – 1506
Events
- Columbus lands on Guanahani12 October 1492 · Exploration
- First circumnavigation of the world20 September 1519 · Exploration
- Beginning of the military uprising in Spain17 July 1936 · War & conflict
Conflicts & fossils
Sources: La Moncloa – regering van Spanje · Encyclopaedia Britannica: Spain