Shaka

Shaka kaSenzangakhona was born around 1787, the son of Senzangakhona, chief of the then small Zulu clan, and Nandi of the eLangeni clan. According to oral tradition his status as the clan leader's son was disputed and mother and child were sent away. The year and place of his birth are not known with certainty.

He grew up among the eLangeni and later the Mthethwa, who under Dingiswayo formed one of the most powerful groups in the region. As a young man he served in Dingiswayo's army. This early period is known mainly from oral accounts recorded later and from reports by European traders, which differ in reliability.

After Senzangakhona's death around 1816, Shaka became leader of the Zulu with Dingiswayo's support. He built the capital kwaBulawayo and brought neighbouring groups under his authority, partly through diplomacy and partly through war. After Dingiswayo's death (about 1817–1818) he clashed with Zwide of the Ndwandwe, whom according to tradition he defeated around 1818–1820.

Military innovations are attributed to Shaka: the short stabbing spear (iklwa), larger shields, age-based regiments (amabutho) and the 'buffalo horns' formation with a chest, two horns and a reserve. Historians differ on how original these were; according to some he built on existing Nguni practices or on the examples of other rulers.

After the death of his mother Nandi in 1827, sources describe a period of mourning with strict prohibitions and mass executions. How extensive these were is uncertain, because the accounts come from European traders and from Zulu tradition recorded later, which diverge.

Around 1800 the area between the Drakensberg and the coast of present-day KwaZulu-Natal was inhabited by Nguni-speaking groups who competed for grazing land, cattle and trade. Drought, the trade in ivory and slaves via Delagoa Bay and the proximity of the Cape Colony are cited to differing degrees by historians as background to political upscaling.

Reliable contemporary accounts are largely lacking. The European traders Nathaniel Isaacs (book of 1836) and Henry Francis Fynn (a 'diary' that appeared only in 1950 as an edited compilation) are the earliest witnesses, but historians read them with caution. In addition, the James Stuart Archive contains Zulu testimonies recorded around 1900.

Under Shaka the Zulu kingdom grew into a centrally directed state with a strong army, in which young men were organised into regiments. Neighbouring groups were subjugated, fled or split off. Leaders such as Mzilikazi, who later led the Ndebele, and Soshangane, who settled in present-day Mozambique, founded their own kingdoms elsewhere in southern Africa in the same period.

The 'mfecane' (about 1815–1840) was a period of large-scale violence, famine and displacement in southern Africa. Traditionally it was attributed to Shaka's expansion and the death toll estimated at 1 to 2 million. Since the second half of the twentieth century historians have also pointed to the slave trade, drought and colonisation, and regard both the causes and the figures as disputed.

Shaka was killed at Dukuza in September 1828 by his half-brothers Dingane and Mhlangana. According to tradition this happened while many regiments were away on campaign. Dingane succeeded him and ruled until about 1840; the Zulu kingdom remained a regional power until the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879.

The image of Shaka has changed greatly over time: colonial writers portrayed him as monstrous, while later traditions also saw him as a statesman and a symbol of Zulu identity. Historians such as Carolyn Hamilton and Dan Wylie study how these images arose; his own actions can be reconstructed only partially because of the nature of the sources.